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MATERIALS & TECHNIQUES
FOR MAKING BUDDHIST STATUES
Last Update March 2008 = More Wood Terms
Glossary with 60+ Terms

SELECT CATEGORY Wood (木造) Timber List Metal (鋳造) Clay (塑造) Dry Lacquer (乾漆) Stone (磨崖仏 and 石仏) How are Buddha Statues Created? This page provides an overview of the primary materials and techniques used by Japanese artisans to create Buddhist statuary. It also provides the Japanese spellings and pronunciations for the most widely used materials and methods. This glossary is not comprehensive. More terms will be added over time. Butsuzo 仏像 Literally Buddha Statue. Also spellled Butsuzō or Butsuzou. A Japanese term that refers to all types of Buddhist statuary regardless of the material used or the ranking of the deity (e.g., Buddha, Bodhisattva, Deva, Monk). Who Made Japan's Buddha Statues? Please visit the Busshi Index for an overview of Japan's main sculptors (Busshi) and sculpting styles, plus a helpful A-to-Z index covering 100+ sculptors. Busshi 仏師 literally means "Buddhist Teacher." Sources. This page relies heavily on various Japanese-language resources, but most especially, it relies on the wonderful English-language database of the Japanese Architecture & Art Net Users System JAANUS. Links to JAANUS are provided for most of the entries presented below. You are strongly encouraged to explore JAANUS. WOOD Ichiboku Zukuri Single Block Natabori Hachet Carving Timber (Wood) List Uchiguri Hollowing Out Warihagi Split and Join Wood Names Timber List Yosegi Zukuri Joined Block METAL Chuzo, Chūzō Casting Chukin, Chūkin Metal Casting Ginpaku Silver Foil / Leaf Haku Foil / Leaf Hakuoshi Applied Metal Foil Imono Casting Method Kigata Imono Casting Method Kinpaku Gold Foil / Leaf Kinpakuoshi Applied Gold Leaf Kirihaku Metal Patterns Kirikane Decorative Method Kondo, Kondō Gilt Bronze Oshidashibutsu Repousse Rogata, Rōgata Lost Wax Shippaku Foil & Lacquer Tokin Gold Gilding Method CLAY Saishikizo Painted statue Senbutsu Unglazed Clay Tiles Sozo, Sozō Clay statues DRY LACQUER Dakkatsu Kanshitsu Hollow Dry Kanshitsu Dry Lacquer Method Kokuso Urushi Lacquer Paste Mokushin Kanshitsu Wood Core Shingi Wood Frame Shippaku Foil & Lacquer STONE Ganzo, Ganzō Niche Carving Magaibutsu Cliff / Cave Buddha Sekibutsu Stone Buddha Sekizo, Sekizō Stone Carving Stones - Other Entries

WOOD 木造 (Mokuzō, Mokuzou, Mokuzo) Main Techniques & Materials for Making Wood Statues See JAANUS for wonderful review of wood sculpture. Wood wasn't always the primary material used to create Buddhist sculpture in Japan. In the Asuka and Nara eras, gilt bronze ruled the roost, with wood competing as well with clay and dry-lacquer statuary. From the Heian period onward, however, wooden sculpture gains ascendency, and thereafter dominates the world of Japanese Buddhist sculpture. Although sandalwood is the most prized of all the woods, it is not indigenous to Japan or China, and substitutes had to be found. In the +7th century, the broadleaf camphor 樟 tree was the main material used for wooden sculpture in Japan. In subsequent centuries, however, the Japanese turned increasingly to cypress (hinoki 桧), nutmeg (kaya 榧), the Judas tree (katsura 桂), and other timbers readily available in Japan. The popularization of wooden Buddhist statuary in Japan was no doubt accelerated by Japan's ancient practice of tree worship, for wood has long been revered as a vehicle housing the gods and spirits of Japan's indigenous Shinto faith. Wood sculpture reaches its appex (in my mind) in the Kamakura period, and thereafter falls into decline, surpassed beyond repair by secular (non-religious) folk art in the Edo Era. Guze Kannon 救世観音 Height = 178.8 cm Houryuuji (Horyuji) 法隆寺 (Nara) 7th Century Wood = Camphor 樟 Made from single block of wood. Ichiboku Zukuri 一木造. Single-Block Carving. Technique used in the early centuries, rising to prominence in the Nara and early Heian periods, but later supplanted by the yosegi-zukuri (joined block) technique. Statues are carved from one solid block of wood in a four-step process (see clipart below). Although the pedestal, halo, and legs (for sitting statues) might be carved from a secondary block of wood, all ichiboku-zukuri statues share one common characteristic -- the head and torso are carved from the same single block. The earliest extant wooden statue in Japan (first half 7th century) is the Guze Kannon 救世観音 at Houryuuji Temple 法隆寺 in Nara. It was carved from one piece of camphor 樟 wood using the ichiboku-zukuri technique. Although the preferred method of sculpture until the 11th century, the single-block technique suffered from three major limitations. First, life-size or larger statues were enormously heavy and therefore hard to move from place to place. Second, a wood core often develops large cracks that spread through the statue as the timber dries. Third, the problems of weight and cracking could be overcome to some degree by hollowing out the statue's interior, but the statue's size was still severely curtailed by the size of the tree truck from which it is carved. The split-and-join method (warihagi) and the joined-block technique (yosegi-zukuri) that emeged in the late 10th century provided solutions to these limitations, and thereafter the popularity of single-block carving falls into decline. Single-block carving experienced a revival in the Edo Period when two wandering artists revived the method. They were the Buddhist priest Enkuu (Enku) 円空 (1632-1695) and the Zen priest Mokujiki Myouman 木食明満 (1718-1810). Nearly all of their extant pieces were carved from a single block of wood, including the pedestals, and were not hollowed out. This gives their pieces a compelling freshness compared to the traditional refined works of Buddhist sculpture. Neither was widely recognized during his lifetime, but each has since achieved great fame. For more details on single-block carving, see JAANUS. Ichiboku Zukuri 一木造 = Single Block Carvings 1 Block Cutting Kidori 木取 Prepare piece of wood with right size for intended statue 2 Rough Cut Arabori 荒彫 with round chisel or other cutting instrument 3 Fine Cut Kozukuri 小造り Detailed carving and smoothing of surface 4 Finishing Shiage 仕上げ Refined cutting for final piece Above Clipart = Adapted from stock image used by most Japanese museums Mokuchou, Mokuchō, Mokucho 木彫. Literally "Wooden Sculpture."  Mokushin Kanshitsu 木心乾漆. Wood-core dry lacquer statues. The statue's shape is roughly carved in wood, and then molded over by lacquer mixed with sawdust or other fibrous material (kokuso urushi 木屎漆). See more details below.   Natabori Carving 11-Headed Kannon Closeup of Standing Statue by Enku (1632 - 1695) H = 178.5 cm Edo Period, 1689 Ohira Kannondo, Shiga Natabori 鉈彫 = Hachet carvings, popular from last half of the 10th century to around the 12th century; revived again in Edo period. Single-block carvings (ichiboku zukuri) are sometimes called natabori, but natabori statues are differentiated from ichiboku-zukuri carvings by the characteristic round chisel (nata 鉈) markings that are added to the statue's surface. Natabori statues are rough-cut (arabori 荒彫) or fine-cut (kozukuri 小造り), but they do not undergo final finishing (shiage 仕上げ). Some Japanese claim that natabori are incomplete works because they lack final finishing, while others claim that natabori statues are a unique sculptural style. In the Edo Period, the wandering Buddhist priest Enkuu (Enku) 円空 (1632-1695) revived the technique. Nearly all of his pieces (allegedly 120,000 figures) were carved as single-block figures, including the pedestals, and were not hollowed out. Enkuu was not widely recognized during his lifetime, but has achieved great fame in modern-day Japan. He hailed from Mino 美濃 (modern Gifu prefecture). He was not affiliated with any temple or workshop, nor considered a professional maker of Buddhist images. Rather, he was a mountain ascetic and pilgrim who traveled about the eastern and northern parts of Japan carving statues in exchange for food and shelter. For more on natabori, see JAANUS.  Uchiguri 内刳. The hollowing out of statues. Extremely important innovation in wood sculpture that emerged during the 9th century. This technique made the statue lighter and helped prevent the wood from cracking as it dried. See JAANUS for details.  Warihagi 割矧. Split-and-Join Technique. A major carving method introduced in the later half of the 10th century, almost at the same time as the yoseki zukuri (joined-block assembly) technique. One-block statues are split, sometimes into several pieces, hollowed out, and rejoined. Typically the head and torso are carved from one block. The block is then split along the grain to enable hollowing out, after which the pieces are rejoined. The head was sometimes removed from the torso as well and later reattached (a practice also used in the yoseki zukuri method). The technique allowed for greater hollowing-out of the wood, which in turn led to the widespread acceptance of the yoseki-zukuri process. Warihagi was suitable for making smaller-than-life-size statues, while yoseki-zukuri was used primarily for life-size or larger statues. The method was likely developed to enable maximum weight reduction while retaining as much as possible of the original single-block method of wood sculpture. See JAANUS for more details.  Yakushi Nyorai Kamakura-era head, Edo-era body Yosegi Zukuri 寄木造. Joined-Block Technique, Assembled-Wood Method. Also read Yoseki Zukuri. Statues are made from several pieces of timber and then joined together. A major carving technique introduced in the later half of the 10th century, which reached its apogee with Unkei 運慶 (1148 - 1223 AD), one of Japan's most highly acclaimed sculptors. Instead of using one solid piece of wood, the statue is carved in a piecemeal fashion from partially hollow blocks of wood. First, the individual body parts are carved roughly and separately. Second, the pieces are assembled, and only then, thirdly, does detailed carving begin. This new method had various advantages. Not only was it faster, allowing several artists to work in tandem on different parts, but also the final sculpture was much lighter than one carved from a single block of wood. The assembled-wood technique also satisfied conditions for systematized mass-production (i.e., the ability to produce large quantities of statues with standard specifications). By the late Heian era, large-scale projects involving dozens, even hundreds, of statues were commissioned. Moreover, the technique allowed Japan's artisans to create ever-larger statues of the Buddhist divinities. Finally, in the centuries that followed, the prefabricated nature of the individual body parts allowed temples to quickly repair or replace damaged or destroyed body parts -- e.g., placing the undamaged head of an older statue (whose body was ruined by fire or earthquake) onto another statue whose body was still in good repair. According to various Japanese sources, the yosegi-zukuri method was introduced due primarily to the lack of large trees and a growing creative impulse to construct gigantic statues of the Buddha (Nyorai) and Bodhisattva (Bosatsu). Others say the technique stems from Jouchou (Jocho, Jōchō) 定朝, the great Buddhist sculptor (died 1057AD) who is credited with the outstanding Bosatsu on Clouds and Amida statues at Byoudouin Temple (Byōdō-in, Byodoin) 平等院 in Kyoto. This large-scale extant installation of 50-plus Buddhist statues, completed in 1053 AD, provides many examples of both the split-and-join technique and assembled-wood method. These construction methods allowed Jouchou and his team to plan the entire production process before work even began. Indeed, Jouchou is credited with perfecting both techniques. Despite China's strong influence on Japan's sculpting traditions during most of this period, the craftsmanship of Jouchou and his team is considered a prime example of Japan's flowering indigenous artistic genius. Nonetheless, after the 10th century, Japanese Buddhist sculpture became somewhat standardized owing to the convenience of these new systematized mass-production techniques. After Jouchou's death, many statues were made with similar postures and expressions. Modern Japanese art historians lament the lack of individuality in sculptuary of subsequent decades. In the Kamakura era, however, a new artistic master, Unkei 運慶 (1148 - 1223 AD), arrives on the scene. One of Japan's most highly acclaimed sculptors, Unkei sparks a resurgence in Japanese Buddhist statuary and artistic energy. WOOD (TIMBER) LIST Most Common Wood Used to Make Buddha Statues WOOD DESCRIPTION 沈香 Jinkō, Jinkou, Jinko = Agarwood, Agar 栢木 ばいむ Baimu = Sandalwood Substitutes. Baimu is the Chinese reading. Hakuboku is the Japanese reading. Sandalwood is a fine-grained aromatic wood and the most prized of all timber for Buddhist statuary. It is not indigenous to East Asia. China and Japan had to import it from India. By China's Tang dynasty, however, the idea that a wood called BAIMU (type of cypress) could be used as a substitute was presented by the Chinese Priest Hui Zhao. His writings and other documents from those times provided justification for using woods other than sandalwood.   白檀 Byakudan = Sandalwood (literally "white sandalwood"). An aromatic wood, the most prized and most expensive for making Buddhist statuary. Reportedly the first-ever Buddha statues from India were made using sandalwood. The sandalwood tree is not indigenous to Japan or China (or at least very scarce). Substitute woods were thus used instead. The trunk of the sandalwood tree is small, making it unsuitable for large statues. There are various types of Sandalwood. 檀木 Sandalwood, Generic Term (Danboku だんぼく) 白檀 White Sandalwood (Byakudan びゃくだん) 緑檀 Green Sandalwood (Ryokudan りょくだん) 紫檀 Red Sandalwood, Kingwood (Shitan したん) 紅檀 Crimson, Deep Red (Kutan くたん, Kōdan こうだん) 黒檀 Black Sandalwood or Ebony (Kokutan こくたん)  檀像 檀像様 彫刻 Danzō, Danzou, Danzo. A Buddhist statue made from aromatic wood, such as sandalwood (byakudan 白檀), rosewood (shitan 紫檀), ebony (kokutan 黒檀), Japanese bead tree (sendan 栴檀), or Japanese nutmeg (kaya 榧). Usually very small in size and carved with fine details. The first danzo brought from China to Japan is reportedly a small Kannon 観音 statue enshrined in +595 at Hisodera Temple 比蘇寺 in Yoshino 吉野 (Nara). When substitute woods are used instead of sandalwood, the statues may also be called Danzōyō Chōkoku 檀像様彫刻 (lit. danzō-style statues). For more, see JAANUS.  栢木 はくぼく Hakuboku = Sandalwood Substitutes. The Japanese reading of the term BAIMU. Refers generally to all woods that can substitute for sandalwood, but also used as a term referring only to aromatic woods like kaya (榧 = Japanese Nutmeg). Kaya became a popular substitute for sandalwood in the Nara period and early Heian era. 霹靂木 Hekireki = Type of Cypress 雷が落ち神や霊の宿った樹木のこと・これは楠木 桧 檜 Hinoki = Japanese Cypress. Very light weight. Used commonly today for inexpensive small reproductions. 桂 Katsura = Judas Tree. Used often in Nara and Heian eras. 榧 Kaya = Japanese Nutmeg. Needleleaf tree. Aromatic wood highly prized as substitue for sandalwood. 欅 Keyaki = Zelkova. Type of gray-black elm tree. Hardwood. Also used to construct tansu (chests). 桐 Kiri = Paulownia. Used for making boxes & chests (tansu) 黒檀 Kokutan = Ebony, also known as Black Sandalwood. 香木 Kōboku = Generic term for aromatic scented wood 樟 Kusu = Camphor. Main wood used for statues in Japan's Asuka Period. 楠木 Kusunoki = Japanese Cinnamon Highly prized aromatic wood. 桜 Sakura = Japanese Cherry Tree 栴檀 Sendan = Japanese Bead Tree (Melia Azedarach). Also an alternative term for Sandalwood (byakudan 白檀). 白木 Shiraki = White Fir. Very light weight. Cheapest wood for small modern reproductions. 紫檀 Shitan = Rosewood. Also known as Red Sandalwood or Kingwood 柘植 Tsuge = Boxwood. Type of wild mulberry. Hardwood. Used commonly today for small wooden reproductions.

METAL CASTING 鋳金 (Chūkin, Chuukin, Chukin) Bronze was the most-used metal for casting, although statues were also cast from other copper alloys, and from silver, gold, and other metals. Most metals were imported into Japan prior to the +7th century. But in +708, copper was discovered in great quantity in Japan. Bronze remained the most dominant form of statuary until the Heian era, when it was finally supplanted by wood. The lost-wax technique (rougata 蝋型) was the most popular method for casting metal statues, and was utilized widely until the 12th century. Most of Japan's extant bronze statues are gilded.  Chuuzou, Chūzō, Chuzo 鋳造. Also known as Imono 鋳物. Method of casting. The base material (metal, plaster, clay, or glass) is heated, melted to liquid, and then poured into a mold (igata 鋳型). The mold (mould) is removed after the material has hardened, revealing the solid form within. The term Chuuzoubutsu 鋳造仏 (also spelled Chūzōbutsu, Chuzobutsu) refers specifically to cast Buddhist images. Chuukin, Chūkin, Chukin 鋳金. Metal casting. Often used interchangeably with the term Chuuzo or Imono (see prior entry). Chuukin refers specifically to metal, whereas Chuuzo and Imono refer to a casting method that includes other materials like clay and glass. See JAANUS for many more details. Ginpaku 銀箔. Silver foil or silver leaf.  Haku 箔. Literally "foil" or "leaf." A general term referring to various techniques for adding metal decorations to Buddhist statues made of wood, dry lacquer, or clay. Various materials were used, including gold, silver, copper, tin and brass, but the most common were gold (kinpaku 金箔) and silver (ginpaku 銀箔). The oldest extant haku artwork in Japan dates from the late 7th century. It is found on the wall paintings of the Takamatsuzuka 高松塚 tomb in Asuka (near Nara). Visit this outside site for photos. One important technique for affixing gold foil to an object (with lacquer or glue) is known as kinpakuoshi 金箔押. Another major technique is called shippaku 漆箔, in which gold or silver foil is affixed to lacquer and then applied to statues made of wood or dry-lacquer (kanshitsu 乾漆). Another widely used technique was kirikane 切金, which involved cutting foil into small pieces to make intricate designs on statue garments. See JAANUS for more details about haku.